Sources & References

All content on this site is based on published medical research, clinical guidelines, and official health authority recommendations. Below is the complete list of sources referenced across our articles, organized by type.

We provide links to freely accessible sources wherever possible so you can read the original materials yourself.

Clinical Guidelines & Official Recommendations

American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO)

“Pediatric Eye Evaluations Preferred Practice Pattern.” Ophthalmology, 2023. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10680450/
“Esotropia and Exotropia Preferred Practice Pattern.” Ophthalmology / PMC, 2023. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10655158/
“Strabismus in Children.” 2025. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/diseases/strabismus-in-children
“Vision Development: Newborn to 12 Months.” 2025. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/baby-vision-development-first-year
“Eye Screening for Children.” 2025. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/children-eye-screening
“10 Child Eye Problems Parents Should Never Ignore.” 2025. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/child-eye-problems-parents-should-never-ignore
“Four Hidden Signs of Vision Problems in Kids.” 2025. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/four-hidden-signs-of-vision-problems-in-kids
“A Stepwise Approach to Leukocoria.” EyeNet Magazine, 2017. https://www.aao.org/eyenet/article/stepwise-approach-to-leukocoria
“Vision Screening for Infants and Children.” 2022. https://www.aao.org/education/clinical-statement/vision-screening-infants-children-2022

American Optometric Association (AOA)

“Infant Vision: Birth to 24 Months of Age.” https://www.aoa.org/healthy-eyes/eye-health-for-life/infant-vision
“Preschool Vision: 2 to 5 Years of Age.” https://www.aoa.org/healthy-eyes/eye-health-for-life/preschool-vision

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) / HealthyChildren.org

“Warning Signs of Vision Problems in Infants & Children.” https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/eyes/Pages/Warning-Signs-of-Vison-Problems-in-Children.aspx

UK National Health Service (NHS)

“Eye tests for children.” 2024. https://www.nhs.uk/tests-and-treatments/eye-tests-in-children/
“Healthier Together: Eye Screening and Tests.” 2024.
NHS Scotland. “Pre-school vision screening.” 2025. https://www.nhsinform.scot/tests-and-treatments/routine-tests-and-examinations/pre-school-vision-screening/

World Health Organization (WHO)

“Vision and Eye Screening Implementation Handbook.” 2024. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/375590/9789240082458-eng.pdf

Japan

日本弱視斜視学会 (Japanese Association of Strabismus and Amblyopia). “3歳児健康診査における視覚検査について.” 2023. https://www.jasa-web.jp/general/about-3sai
日本眼科医会 (Japanese Ophthalmologists Association). “乳幼児・学校保健関連情報.” 2023. https://www.gankaikai.or.jp/school-health/
群馬県教育委員会 / 群馬県医師会. “幼児・児童生徒の眼科健康診断の手引き.” 2021.

Singapore

Ministry of Health, Singapore. “Effectiveness of National Myopia Prevention Programme’s Strategies for Primary School Students.” 2024. https://www.moh.gov.sg/newsroom/effectiveness-of-national-myopia-prevention-programme-s-strategies-for-primary-school-students
Health Promotion Board, Singapore. “Singapore achieves Breakthrough in Reducing prevalence of Myopia.” https://www.hpb.gov.sg/newsroom/article/singapore-achieves-breakthrough-in-reducing-prevalence-of-myopia-by-almost-5

China (Mainland)

国家卫生健康委 (National Health Commission). “0～6岁儿童眼保健及视力检查服务规范（试行）.” 2021. https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2021-06/24/content_5620637.htm
国家卫生健康委. “0～6岁儿童眼保健核心知识问答.” 2021.
国家卫生健康委. “儿童青少年近视防控适宜技术指南.” 2019.

Taiwan

衛生福利部國民健康署. “兒童視力篩檢及矯治指引.” 2020. https://www.hpa.gov.tw/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=609&pid=1077
衛生福利部. “護眼123.” 2019. https://www.mohw.gov.tw/cp-3794-41061-1.html

Canada

Canadian Association of Optometrists. Eye exam frequency recommendations.

Prevent Blindness (US)

“Signs of Possible Eye Problems in Children.” 2024. https://preventblindness.org/signs-of-possible-eye-problems-in-children/
National Center for Children’s Vision and Eye Health. “Vision Screening Guidelines by Age.” 2025. https://nationalcenter.preventblindness.org/vision-screening-guidelines-by-age/

Peer-Reviewed Academic Papers

Leukocoria & Retinoblastoma

Kanukollu VM, Tripathy K. “Leukocoria.” StatPearls, NCBI Bookshelf, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560794/
Fabian ID, Abdallah E, Gombos DS, et al. “Retinoblastoma.” StatPearls, NCBI Bookshelf, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545276/
Haider S, Qureshi W, Ali A. “Leukocoria in Children.” Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 45(3):179-80, 2008.

Pediatric Cataract

Khokhar SK, et al. “Pediatric Cataract.” StatPearls, NCBI Bookshelf, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK572080/

Strabismus

“Common types of strabismus.” Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology / PMC, 2010. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2830773/
The London Squint Clinic. “Esotropia vs Exotropia: Inward vs Outward Squint in Children.” 2025. https://www.londonsquintclinic.com/esotropia-vs-exotropia-inward-vs-outward-squint-in-children/

Amblyopia

“Amblyopia: Detection and Treatment.” American Family Physician, 2019. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/1215/p745.html
“Amblyopia in children (aged 7 years or less).” BMJ Clinical Evidence / PMC, 2016. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4701128/
“Current Management of Childhood Amblyopia.” Korean Journal of Ophthalmology / PMC, 2019. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6911788/

Vision Screening

“Pediatric Vision Screening.” Pediatrics in Review / PMC, 2018. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6317790/
“Pediatric Eye Evaluations Preferred Practice Pattern.” Ophthalmology / PMC, 2023. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10680450/

Myopia & Outdoor Time

“Advances in myopia prevention strategies for school-aged children: a comprehensive review.” Frontiers in Public Health / PMC, 2023. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10466414/
“Is Spending More Time Outdoors Able to Prevent and Control Myopia in Children and Adolescents? A Meta-Analysis.” Ophthalmic Research, 2024.
Chua SY, et al. “School-based programme to address childhood myopia in Singapore.” Singapore Medical Journal / PMC, 2019. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027142/
“The association between screen time exposure and myopia in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis.” BMC Public Health / PMC, 2024. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11186094/

Population Health

“Making Eye Health a Population Health Imperative: Vision for Tomorrow.” National Academies Press / NCBI Bookshelf, 2016. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK385157/

Textbooks

Youngstein K. The Eye Book: An Illustrated Guide for Patients. Cybersight / Orbis International, 2017. https://cybersight.org/library/the-eye-book-an-illustrated-guide-for-patients/
Root T. OphthoBook. TimRoot.com, 2009. https://timroot.com/ophthobook/
Merck & Co. “Retinoblastoma.” Merck Manual Professional Edition, 2024. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/pediatric-cancers/retinoblastoma

A Note on How We Use Sources

We do not reproduce copyrighted text. All articles on this site are written in our own words based on the information and findings in the sources listed above. Where we cite specific statistics, study results, or clinical recommendations, we indicate the source in the article text using bracketed references (e.g., [Source: src1]) that correspond to the numbered sources at the bottom of each article.

We encourage you to read the original sources whenever possible. Many are freely available online through the links provided above.

If you believe we have misrepresented any source or made a factual error, please contact us at eyecare@parentguidebook.org and we will review and correct it promptly.

Last updated: February 2026